Bridging Mathematics Achievement Gaps: An Intersectional Analysis of Vulnerable Student Populations in U.S. Schools

Abstract

Persistent inequalities in mathematics achievement continue to represent one of the most persistent forms of educational inequality worldwide. Despite decades of policy reforms aimed at improving inclusive education, students with disabilities, economically disadvantaged students and English learners continue to perform below the general student population in mathematics assessments. These disparities limit not only academic success but also long-term access to higher education, STEM careers and socioeconomic mobility. This study examines variations in mathematics achievement gaps among students with disabilities, economically disadvantaged students and English learners during the 2021-2022 academic year. Using large-scale state-level assessment data, the study applies comparative statistical analysis, including analysis of variance (ANOVA), grade-level trend evaluation and regression modeling, to examine demographic disparities and intersectional effects across educational stages. The analysis captures both between-state differences and within-grade performance patterns to provide a system-level understanding of achievement inequality. The findings reveal substantial and statistically significant disparities across demographic groups and states. Achievement gaps widen progressively as students advance through grade levels, with the most pronounced declines occurring during middle and higher grade levels. Students experiencing intersecting disadvantages, particularly disability combined with economic hardship or language barriers, demonstrate consistently lower mathematics proficiency outcomes when compared with students facing a single challenge. Results further indicate that variations in educational resources, instructional support systems and inclusive teaching practices contribute significantly to observed performance differences. This study concludes that closing mathematics achievement gaps requires investments in inclusive education, targeted instructional support and policies designed to ensure that every student has a fair opportunity to succeed. Therefore, the study recommends that Governments at both federal and state levels should therefore prioritize funding models that direct additional resources to schools and regions where achievement gaps are most pronounced.